Thripinae, Thripidae, Terebrantia, Thysanoptera

Figures

Megalurothrips sjostedti is a serious pest of legumes flowers, particularly cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata). Both sexes macropterous. Body color brown; tarsi light brown to yellow also fore tibiae and antennal segment III; hind tibiae with 2 stout dark apical setae; fore wings brown with basal quarter pale and an indistinct and variable paler area sub-apically. Antennae 8-segmented; segments III & IV with constricted apical neck and sense cone long and forked, segment I with pair of small setae on dorso-apical margin (Fig. 1). Head as wide as long; 3 pairs of ocellar setae present, setae III longer than setae II, longer than distance between compound eyes, and arise on anterior margins of ocellar triangle; postocular setae small (Fig. 2). Pronotum with 2 pairs of long posteroangular setae; posterior margin with 3 pairs of setae; anteroangular setae well-developed (Fig. 3). Mesofurca with spinula. Metanotum with weak sculpture medially; median setae longer than lateral setae and arise at anterior margin; campaniform sensilla present (Fig. 4). Mid and hind tarsi 2-segmented. Fore wing first vein with almost complete row of setae but usually with a short subapical gap followed by 2 setae; second vein with complete row of setae; clavus with 4 marginal setae (Fig. 5). Tergites without sculpture medially and without ctenidia; tergite VIII with irregular group of microtrichia anteromesad of the spiracle, and with posteromarginal comb of short microtrichia which is broadly absent medially (Fig. 8). Sternites without discal setae; median pair of posteromarginal setae on sternite VII arise at margin (Fig. 7).
Male similar to female but smaller and paler with antennae more slender, legs sometimes almost yellow; tergite IX with pair of small stout seta-like tubercles on posterior margin; sternites without glandular areas.

The genus Megalurothrips Bagnall, 1915
There are about 13 species known in this genus all of which live and breed in legume flowers and are widespread and common throughout the Old World tropics and subtropics. But there is some doubt on the validity of a few described species (Palmer 1987). Megalurothrips sjostedti is the only species of this genus recorded from Africa. Members of the genus have 8 antennal segments, antennal segment I with a pair of small dorso-apical setae, antennal segments III & IV with forked sense cone, the pronotum contains 2 pairs of long posteroangular setae, and tergite VIII has no ctenidia, but an irregular group of microtrichia anteromesad to the spiracle (Mound & Kibby 1998).

Megalurothrips sjostedti is similar to species of Ceratothripoides and Craspedothrips, Diarthrothrips coffeae, Lefroyothrips pictus and Tenothrips frici in having 8-segmented antennae with forked sense cone on segments III and IV and 2 pairs of elongate pronotal setae posteroangularly, in lacking ctenidia laterally on tergites V-VIII and absence of regular rows of fine microtrichia on lateral thirds of tergites. Megalurothrips sjostedti as well as Tenothrips frici differ from other species by the comb of short microtrichia only laterally on posterior margin of tergite VIII, whereas other species have a continuous craspedum (Craspedothrips hargreavesi), without comb of microtrichia (Craspedothrips xanthocerus, Diarthrothrips coffeae) or a complete posteromarginal comb of long and slender microtrichia on tergite VIII (species of Ceratothripoides and Lefroyothrips pictus). Compared to Megalurothrips sjostedti, in Tenothrips frici the forked sense cone on antennal segment IV is scarcely extending beyond base of segment V, the pronotum has 4 pairs of posteromarginal setae, the metanotal median area is distinctly sculptured with mainly equiangular reticulation and without campaniform sensilla, the fore wings are uniformly light brown, the fore wing first vein has only 1+2 setae on distal half, and median marginal setae on sternite VII arise in front of posterior margin. Whereas in Megalurothrips sjostedti the forked sense cone on antennal segment IV extending to a point at least a third to base of segment V, the pronotum has only 3 pairs of posteromarginal setae, the metanotal median area is weakly sculptured particularly on posterior half and with campaniform sensilla, the fore wings are banded, the fore wing first vein has an almost complete row of setae, but usually with a short subapical gap followed by 2 setae, and median marginal setae on sternite VII arise at margin.

Life history
The total development time ranged from 33 days at 14°C to 19 days at 26°C. The total fecundity ranged from 8.2 to 168.4 eggs per female and it was influenced by fluctuations in temperature and photoperiod (Ekesi et al 1999b; Gitonga et al. 2002).

Host plants
Mainly fabaceous crops.
Crops: African eggplant, African nightshade, African spiderplant, alfalfa, amaranth, avocado, banana, beans (broad bean, common bean, cowpea, French bean, green gram, hyacinth bean, Lima bean, red gram, soybean), capsicum, cashew, cassava, chillies, coffee, cotton, Ficus benjamina, groundnut, kale, lemon, lemon grass, maize, mango, Morus alba, Napier grass, okra, onion, orange, potato, pumpkin, sorghum, spinach, sunflower, sweet potato, tomato, watermelon.
Weeds: Acanthospermum hispidum, Bidens pilosa, Crotalaria bravedens, Crotalaria desertii, Crotalaria ochroleuca, Crotalaria sp., Datura suaveolens, Lactuca inermis, Lantana camara, Leonotis nepetifolia, Melia azadirach, Nycandra physalodes, Polygonum pulcherum, Schkuhria pinnata, Sesbania sesban, Senna didymobotrya, Senna longiracemosa, Sida acuata, Solanum incanum, Sonchus oleracea, Tagetes minuta, Tephrosia villosa ssp. eherenbergiana, Tithonia diversifolia, Triumfetta flavescens, Vernonia hochstetteri.

Vector capacity
None identified, but possible mechanical distribution of phytopathogenic fungi and bacteria.

Damage and symptoms
Considered to be a serious pest of cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata) throughout tropical Africa, feeding in the flowers on pollen and other floral tissues and causing flowers to fall and crop yields to be reduced. Leaf buds and bracts / stipules of cowpea are damaged during the pre-flowering period, resulting in browning/drying of stipules, leaf or flower buds, deformation of leaf buds and bracts/stipules with a brownish-yellow mottled appearence (Jackai & Singh 1988; Gahukar 2004).

Detection and control strategies
Detection: Megalurothrips sjostedti are significantly more attracted to blue sticky trap as compared to yellow coloured traps. Efficacy of the blue sticky traps for detection of Megalurothrips sjostedti were found to be enhanced in the presence of kairomonal attractant LUREM-TR (Nielsen et al. 2010; Muvea 2011).
Cultural control: The most effective cultivation method is the intercropping of cowpea or beans with cereal crops such as pearl millet (Gahukar 2004), sorghum or maize (Dissemond & Hindorf 1990; Kyamanywa & Tukahirwa 1988; Ekesi et al. 1999a; Ngakou et al. 2008).
Host plant resistance: High yield cowpea varieties such as TVx3236 have shown low to moderate level of resistance against Megalurothrips sjostedti (Jackai & Daoust 1986; Salifu et al. 1988). Improved cowpea varieties like IT90K-76, IT90K-59, and IT90K 277-2 are resistant against thrips, aphids and bruchids (Singh et al. 2002).

Biological control: Major predators are the pirate bugs Orius amnesius and O. albidipennis - Anthocoridae (Matteson 1982). Biocontrol based pest management strategy for Megalurothrips sjostedti on cowpea indicated Cerenisus femoratus to be an effective parasitoid in Cameroon. Release of this parasitoids in Benin and Ghana resulted in increase of parasitism rates to upto 60%, indicating its potential to be an effective biological control agent (Tamo et al. 2002). Application of entomopathogenic fungi, Metarhizium anisopliae was effective for management of Megalurothrips sjostedti on cowpea (Ekesi et al. 1998; Ekesi & Maniania 2002; Tamo et al. 2003; Ngakou et al. 2008).
Botanical pesticides: Application of Neem Seed Kernal Extract at 20% was as effective as three applications of cypermethrin for management of Bean thrips (Saxena & Kidiavai, 1997).

Additional notes
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Biogeography

Afrotropical Region, Yemen. Angola (Lund forest of Luachimo, forest of Governor's Palace Vila Luso, Lunda - Dundo), Burundi (Commune of Gihanga), Cameroon, Central African Republic, Cape Verde Islands (Santo Antão - Ribeira de Paul), Chad, Congo (Brazzaville), Gabon, Ghana, Gambia (Yundum, Kombo, Abuko, Brikama), Ivory Coast, Kenya, Mozambique (Catembe), Niger (Niamey, Diadia), Nigeria, Senegal, Seychelles, South Africa (in all parts), Tanzania (Kibonoto, Kilimanjaro - 1300 m), Togo (Wonugba, Dadja), Uganda (Kampala), Zimbabwe.

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