Thrips tabaci Lindeman, 1889

Thripinae, Thripidae, Terebrantia, Thysanoptera

Figure 1	Figure 2	Figure 3	Figure 4
Figure 5	Figure 6	Figure 7	Figure 8
Figure 9	Figure 10

Figures

Fig. 1: 7-segmented antenna, segments III and IV with forked sense cone, terminal segments VI and VII
Fig. 2: Head dorsal with ocellar triangle
Fig. 3: Pronotum
Fig. 4: Meso- and metanotum
Fig. 5: Fore wing and fore wing middle region
Fig. 6: Sternite VII
Fig. 7: Pleurotergites II and III
Fig. 8: Tergites III and IV
Fig. 9: Tergites VIII and IX
Fig. 10: Adult female

Thrips tabaci is a highly polyphagous and economically harmful pest of cultivated plants, particularly a pest of onion, leek and cabbage, and important as a tospovirus vector. Both sexes fully winged. Body color varying from yellow to dark brown, apparently depending on the temperature during development; ocellar pigment never red, usually grey; fore wings pale. Antennae 7-segmented; segments III & IV slightly constricted at apex and with forked sense cone (Fig. 1). Head wider than long; with 2 pairs of ocellar setae, pair I absent, pair III small and arising on anterior margins or just within ocellar triangle; postocular setae I-III about equal in length (Fig. 2). Pronotum with 2 pairs of posteroangular setae; posterior margin with 3-4 pairs of setae; anterior margin with 4-6 pairs of setae (Fig. 3). Mesofurca with spinula. Metanotal median area with sculptured lines transverse at anterior, but irregular reticulations on posterior half; median setae shorter than lateral setae and arising well behind anterior margin; campaniform sensilla absent (Fig. 4). Mid and hind tarsi 2-segmented. Fore wing first vein usually with 4 (2-6) setae on distal half; second vein with a complete row of about 15 setae; clavus with 5 marginal setae, clavus terminal seta longer than subterminal seta (Fig. 5). Tergite II with 3 lateral marginal setae (Fig. 7); tergites V-VIII with ctenidia present laterally (Fig. 8), on VIII posteromedial to spiracles; posterior margin of VIII with complete comb of long and slender microtrichia (Fig. 9); pleurotergites without discal setae, but sculptured with many rows of fine microtrichia; also tergites laterally with rows of numerous, fine microtrichia (Fig. 7). Sternite II with 2 pairs of marginal setae, III-VII with 3 pairs, the median pair on VII arising in front of margin; sternites without discal setae (Fig. 6).
Male small and yellow; tergite VIII with marginal comb represented by a few irregular microtrichia; tergite IX setae S1 & S2 with bases equidistant, arising on a transverse straight line; sternites III-V each with narrow transverse glandular area.

The genus Thrips L., 1758
There are nearly 300 species currently recognized in the genus Thrips making this genus one of the largest taxa within the order Thysanoptera. The genus was redefined progressively during the 1970's (see Mound et al. 1976), to include many species previously placed in Taeniothrips. The genus Thrips now includes a range of species, some with the antennae 7-segmented, others 8-segmented, and a few with the number of segments varying between 7 and 8. Similarly, some species have few setae on the fore wing first vein, whereas others have a complete row of setae on this vein. The species with a complete setal row on the first vein were placed from some taxonomists in the genera Isothrips or Isoneurothrips. However, all of the species in Thrips have the following character states: antennal segments III & IV with forked sense cone, absence of ocellar setae I, pronotum with 2 pairs of elongate posteroangular setae, paired ctenidia laterally on the tergites V-VIII, tergite VIII ctenidium arising posterior to the spiracle (in contrast to species of the genus Frankliniella). Other character states, such as number of antennal segments, number of setae on the fore wing veins, and number of discal setae on the abdominal sternites are variable between species (Mound & Masumoto 2005; Nakahara 1994; Palmer 1992). Identification keys are available for the species of this genus from many parts of the world. Of particular importance is the published key by Mound (2010) for members of the genus Thrips from Afro-tropical region as well as previous Lucid keys from Moritz et al. (2001, 2004 and 2009).

Thrips tabaci is very similar to some other Thrips species - like Thrips nigropilosus, Thrips palmi and Thrips pusillus. Thrips tabaci has sternites and pleurotergites without discal setae (Thrips acaciae, Thrips brevisetosus, Thrips florum, Thrips gowdeyi, Thrips hawaiiensis and Thrips simplex, all of them have sternites III-VII with at least 1 pair of discal setae and pleurotergites without discal setae; Thrips australis, Thrips microchaetus, Thrips subnudula and Thrips tenellus, all of them have sternites III-VII with at least 1 pair of discal setae and pleurotergites with discal setae; Thrips orientalis and Thrips parvispinus with discal setae on sternites III-VI but not on sternite VII, and without discal setae on pleurotergites).
Thrips tabaci is the only species inside this group with metanotal median shorter than lateral setae (other three species with longer median setae), with 2-6, usually 4, distal setae on fore wing first vein (other species with 1-3 distal setae), and many rows of fine microtrichia on pleurotergites (in other species absent). Inside this group most of the species have no alternating short and long postocular setae on head (in Thrips nigropilosus present), no campaniform sensilla on metanotum (except for Thrips palmi with campaniform sensilla), 3 lateral marginal setae on tergite II (only Thrips palmi with 4 setae), median setae of tergites II-VIII no more than 0.3 as long as median tergite length (except for Thrips nigropilosus with median setal pair unusually long and at least half as long as median length of tergite), and tergites with one or without sculptured lines between median pair of setae (compared to Thrips nigropilosus with two or more transverse lines of sculpture extending medially across the tergites). Furthermore, only Thrips nigropilosus is one of few members of the genus Thrips that produce short-winged adults. But Thrips tabaci as well as Thrips nigropilosus have the metanotal median area sculptured lines transverse at anterior, but forming equiangular or irregular longitudinal and large reticulations on posterior half (in Thrips palmi and Thrips pusillus sculptured lines transverse at anterior, but longitudinal and mostly parallel on posterior half).
Species of the Thrips are similar to species of Stenchaetothrips, Microcephalothrips abdominalis, Larothrips dentipes and Fulmekiola serrata, because of tergites V-VIII bear a pair of ctenidia laterally, which placed on tergite VIII posteromedial to the spiracle, and all species have no ocellar setae I on head. In contrast to species with craspedum on tergites II-VII (Microcephalothrips abdominalis, Larothrips dentipes and Fulmekiola serrata), species of Thrips and Stenchaetothrips have no posteromarginal craspedum on tergites and sternites. Species of Thrips as well as Fulmekiola serrata and species of Stenchaetothrips have 2 pairs of elongate posteroangular setae (Microcephalothrips abdominalis with 2 pairs of moderately elongate pronotal setae and Larothrips dentipes without elongate setae). Compared to the species of Thrips, Microcephalothrips abdominalis, and Larothrips dentipes, which have ocellar setae II much shorter than or about as long as III, Fulmekiola serrata and species of Stenchaetothrips have ocellar setae II much longer than III, and sternites always without discal setae.

Life history
As with other thrips species the life cycle from egg to adult is dependent on temperature. The full cycle can take about 15 days (Lewis 1973) to over a month (Ananthakrishnan 1971). Adults may live for more than one month producing several generations in one year depending on seasons. Total development period ranges from 11.1 days at 27.5°C to 21.0 days at 15.8°C. Fecundity ranges between 23.6-80.1 eggs per female and adult longevity varies from 11.5-58.2 days (Diaz-Montana et al. 2011).

Host plants
Polyphagous ( >300 species of plants), with a special abundance to onions.
Crops: African nightshade, African spiderplant, banana, beans (broad bean, common bean, French bean, garden pea, hyacinth bean, snow pea, sweet pea), beet root, broccoli, cabbage, Canna sp., capsicum, carnation, carrot, chillies, coriander, cotton, cucurbit, eggplant, garlic, grapevine, Jatropha sp., kale, leek, maize, mulberry, okra, onion, orange, potato, pyrethrum, spinach, tobacco, tomato, watermelon, wheat.
Weeds: Ageratum conyzoides, Aloe vera, Bidens pilosa, Bothriocline longipes, Datura suaveolens, Eracastrum arabicum, Galinsoga parviflora, Gamolepsis chrysanthemoides, Ocimum kilimandscharicum, Raphanus raphanistrum, Rumex acetocella, Senecio mesogrammoides, Tagetes minuta, Tithonia diversifolia, Vernonia lasiopus.

Vector capacity
Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV)
Iris yellow spot virus (IYSV)
Tomato yellow ring virus (TYRV)
Tomato yellow fruit ring virus (TYFRV=ToVV Tomato Varamin virus)
Tobacco streak virus (TSV)
Also known to transmit Alternaria porri (a fungus that causes purple blotch on onion), and associated with powdery mildew on cantaloupe, strawberry, grape, Oenothera, clover, and rose. Among these IYSV (Birithia et al. 2011) and TYRV (Birithia et al. 2012a) are reported to occur in East Africa.

Damage and symptoms
Plants infested with this species develop a spotted appearence on the leaves, subsequently turning into pale white blotches due to drainage of sap. The bulbs become unhealthy, becoming reduced in size in partially infested plants; in acute infestations the leaf tips fade, the lower parts become blighted and the plants ultimately fade up and die (Ananthakrishnan 1971).

Detection and control strategies
Blue sticky plastic cups are reported to be highly attractive to Thrips tabaci (Liu & Chu 2004). Based on the seasons, crop and the location the yellow sticky traps can also be attractive to Thrips tabaci (Demirel & Yildirim 2008). Significant increase in their trap captures are also observed in the presence of kairomonal attractant LUREM TR (Till et al. 2009). Cultivation of local and resistent plant species (El-Gendi 1998) can reduce the thrips population.
Onion cultivars like "Colorado 6" and "NMSU 03-52-1" had the lowest numbers of Thrips tabaci, indicating antibiosis and/or antixenosis (Diaz-Montano et al. 2010). In East Africa, onion cultivars like "Texas Grano" and "Bombay red" showed resistance to both Thrips tabaci and thrips transmitted Iris Yellow Spot Virus (IYSV) (Birithia et al. 2012b). Intercropping onion with spider plant and carrot reduced thrips densities by up to 45% and 22%, respectively (Gachu et al. 2012), however optimum ratio of intercropping for enhanced yields needs to be identified. Seedling drench with Imidacloprid 200g/l ai provided good control of thrips and high economic returns (Waiganjo et al. 2008). Where ever possible, over head irrigation systems could greatly reduce the thrips densities since, rainfall has been observed as key regulatory factor of Thrips tabaci (Ibrahim & Adesiyun 2010).
Predaceous insects such as Paederus alfierii (Staphylinidae, rove beetles), Chrysoperla carnea (Chrysopidae, green lacewings), Coccinella undecimpunctata (Coccinellidae, ladybirds), Orius albidipennis (Anthocoridae, minute pirate bugs) (El-Gendi 1998) and Amblyseius spp. (Phytoseiidae, mites) are known to occur in fields when the thrips population is high (Gahukar 2004). Field application of Neoseiulus californicus was effective in reducing Thrips. tabaci population on egg plants in Egypt (El-Kholy & El-Saiedy 2009). Parasitism of Thrips tabaci by Ceranisus menes has been observed frequently in the field. Colonization of onions by the Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) Pseudomonas fluorescens Migula induced systemic resistance response which could be useful for the management of Thrips tabaci (Bandi & Sivasubramanian 2012). Application of Metarhizium anisopliae at the rate of 1x1011 conidia ha-1 was as effective as pesticide treatment for controlling Thrips tabaci infesting onions (Maniania et al. 2003).

Additional notes
Breeding in the flowers and on the leaves of a wide range of plants, also feeding on the larvae of other thrips and of mites.

Biogeography

Cosmopolitan, in areas with rather hot dry climates, but rare in the wet tropics. Algeria (Sidi Ferruch), Botswana, Congo, Egypt (Dokki), Ghana, Kenya, Morocco, Nigeria (Zaria), South Africa (in all parts), St. Helena, Sudan, Tunisia (La Hencha, Monastir), Uganda, Zimbabwe.

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